Key Insights
The Asia Pacific load break switch market is experiencing robust growth, driven by the increasing demand for reliable power distribution across diverse sectors. The region's expanding industrialization, particularly in China, Japan, and South Korea, fuels significant demand for these switches in utilities, industrial, and commercial applications. The transition towards smarter grids and the integration of renewable energy sources further contribute to market expansion. Gas-insulated load break switches are witnessing higher adoption due to their superior performance and safety features compared to air-insulated counterparts. However, high initial investment costs and the need for specialized installation expertise could pose challenges. Growth in Southeast Asia and Australia and New Zealand is expected to be particularly strong, driven by infrastructure development projects and rising energy consumption. Major players like ABB, Siemens, and Eaton are actively expanding their presence in the region, leveraging strategic partnerships and technological advancements to cater to this rising demand. The market's 5.95% CAGR indicates a sustained growth trajectory throughout the forecast period (2025-2033), with the market size expected to surpass a significant value (a precise figure requires more detailed input data, but assuming a market size of $X million in 2025 and applying the CAGR, substantial growth can be projected).
The competitive landscape is characterized by established global players and regional manufacturers. These companies are focusing on innovation in switch technology, enhanced safety features, and providing customized solutions to meet the specific needs of different end-users. Furthermore, the increasing focus on energy efficiency and grid modernization initiatives across the Asia-Pacific region presents lucrative opportunities for market expansion. While the market faces challenges such as stringent regulatory compliance and potential supply chain disruptions, the overall outlook remains optimistic, with continued growth anticipated throughout the forecast period. This positive growth outlook is underpinned by the region's expanding energy infrastructure and the growing demand for reliable power distribution in diverse industrial and commercial settings.

Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This comprehensive report provides an in-depth analysis of the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches market, offering invaluable insights for stakeholders across the value chain. Spanning the period 2019-2033, with a base year of 2025, this report meticulously examines market dynamics, industry trends, key segments, leading players, and future opportunities. The study period covers the historical period (2019-2024), the estimated year (2025) and the forecast period (2025-2033). The market is segmented by end-user (Utilities, Industrial and Commercial), type (Gas-insulated, Air-insulated, Other Types), and country (China, Japan, South Korea, South East Asia, Australia and New Zealand, Rest of Asia Pacific). Expect detailed analysis of key players such as ABB Ltd, Siemens AG, Fuji Electric FA Components & Systems Co Ltd, Powell Electric, ENSTO Oy, Rockwell Automation Inc, Eaton, LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED, General Electric, and Schneider Electric SE.
Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Concentration & Dynamics
The Asia Pacific Load Break Switches market exhibits a moderately concentrated landscape, with the top five players holding an estimated xx% market share in 2025. Innovation within the sector is driven by advancements in materials science, miniaturization, and smart grid technologies. Regulatory frameworks, varying across countries, significantly influence market growth and adoption rates. Substitute products, such as circuit breakers with integrated switching capabilities, pose a competitive challenge. End-user trends lean towards increased automation, remote monitoring, and improved safety features. M&A activity in the past five years has been moderate, with approximately xx deals recorded, indicating consolidation and expansion strategies among key players.
- Market Share: Top 5 players hold an estimated xx% market share in 2025.
- M&A Activity: Approximately xx deals recorded in the past five years.
- Regulatory Landscape: Varying across Asia Pacific countries, influencing market growth.
- Substitute Products: Circuit breakers with integrated switching capabilities present a challenge.
Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Industry Insights & Trends
The Asia Pacific Load Break Switches market is experiencing robust growth, projected to reach xx Million by 2033, exhibiting a CAGR of xx% during the forecast period (2025-2033). This growth is primarily fueled by the expanding power infrastructure in rapidly developing economies like China and India, coupled with the increasing demand for reliable and efficient power distribution across industrial and commercial sectors. The growing adoption of renewable energy sources further propels demand for load break switches capable of integrating with smart grids. Technological disruptions, such as the incorporation of IoT-enabled sensors and advanced communication protocols, are transforming the market, driving demand for sophisticated, remotely monitored switches. Evolving consumer behavior, particularly among utility companies, is focused on minimizing downtime, improving grid resilience, and lowering operational costs. Significant disruptions like the 2021 China power crisis highlighted the need for resilient power infrastructure and increased investment in reliable switching equipment.

Key Markets & Segments Leading Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market
China is the dominant market within the Asia Pacific region, accounting for approximately xx% of the total market value in 2025, driven by substantial investments in power infrastructure and rapid industrialization. The utilities sector represents the largest end-user segment, owing to the extensive use of load break switches in power transmission and distribution networks. Gas-insulated load break switches dominate the market in terms of volume, valued at xx Million in 2025, because of their superior safety and reliability.
- China: Dominant market, driven by infrastructure investment and industrial growth.
- Utilities Sector: Largest end-user segment, driven by power grid expansion.
- Gas-Insulated Switches: Dominant type, driven by high reliability and safety.
- Drivers: Economic growth, rapid urbanization, and renewable energy integration.
Further analysis reveals significant growth potential in South East Asia and South Korea, driven by expanding industrialization and government support for infrastructure development. Japan, despite a mature market, continues to exhibit steady growth due to the ongoing investments in upgrading existing power infrastructure and integrating renewable energy sources, as highlighted by Chubu Electric Power's planned investments of JPY 1 trillion in renewable energy.
Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Product Developments
Recent product innovations focus on enhancing safety, improving reliability, and incorporating smart grid functionalities. Miniaturization trends are evident, particularly in gas-insulated switches, enabling installation in space-constrained environments. Advanced monitoring and diagnostic capabilities are being integrated into load break switches, allowing for predictive maintenance and reduced downtime. These advancements provide manufacturers with a significant competitive edge in the market.
Challenges in the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market
The Asia Pacific Load Break Switches market faces challenges stemming from fluctuating raw material prices, potentially impacting production costs. Stringent safety and environmental regulations in some countries, coupled with complex certification processes, add to the cost and time required for product launch. Intense competition among established players and the entry of new regional manufacturers create price pressure and require manufacturers to continually innovate to maintain market share. Supply chain disruptions, particularly concerning critical components, can impact production and timely delivery.
Forces Driving Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Growth
The market's growth is propelled by several key factors. The rapid expansion of power grids across the region is driving demand for load break switches. Growing investments in renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, necessitate reliable switching equipment for efficient grid integration. Government initiatives promoting infrastructure development further fuel market growth. Technological advancements like the incorporation of IoT and smart grid capabilities enhance the functionality and appeal of load break switches.
Long-Term Growth Catalysts in the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market
Long-term growth hinges on continued innovation, focusing on enhancing safety, reliability, and smart grid integration. Strategic partnerships between manufacturers and utility companies are essential for collaborative development and deployment of advanced switching technologies. Expanding market presence into underserved regions and exploring new applications in emerging sectors, such as electric vehicle charging infrastructure, will be key to sustaining growth.
Emerging Opportunities in Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market
Emerging opportunities lie in the growing adoption of smart grid technologies, the increasing demand for high-voltage load break switches, and the expansion into emerging markets within the Asia Pacific region. The integration of advanced monitoring and diagnostic capabilities offers significant opportunities for value-added services and predictive maintenance solutions. Development of eco-friendly load break switches using sustainable materials will gain traction in line with environmental concerns.
Leading Players in the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Sector
- ABB Ltd
- Siemens AG
- Fuji Electric FA Components & Systems Co Ltd
- Powell Electric
- ENSTO Oy
- Rockwell Automation Inc
- Eaton
- LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED
- General Electric
- Schneider Electric SE
Key Milestones in Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Industry
- November 2021: Chubu Electric Power's planned JPY 1 trillion investment in renewable energy significantly boosts the Japanese market's potential.
- March 2021 - May 2021: China's power crisis highlighted the critical need for reliable power infrastructure and robust switching equipment, driving investment in the sector.
Strategic Outlook for Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market
The Asia Pacific Load Break Switches market presents significant growth potential driven by continued infrastructure development, increasing renewable energy adoption, and technological advancements. Strategic opportunities exist for manufacturers to focus on innovation, strategic partnerships, and expansion into high-growth markets. Companies that can effectively address the challenges of supply chain management and regulatory compliance while offering innovative, reliable, and cost-effective solutions will be best positioned for success in the coming years.
Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Segmentation
-
1. End-User
- 1.1. Utilities
- 1.2. Industrial and Commercial
-
2. Type
- 2.1. Gas-insulated
- 2.2. Air-insulated
- 2.3. Other Types
Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Asia Pacific
- 1.1. China
- 1.2. Japan
- 1.3. South Korea
- 1.4. India
- 1.5. Australia
- 1.6. New Zealand
- 1.7. Indonesia
- 1.8. Malaysia
- 1.9. Singapore
- 1.10. Thailand
- 1.11. Vietnam
- 1.12. Philippines

Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 5.95% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Deployment of Smart Grid Networks and Integration of Renewable Energy Sources into Energy Mix
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Concerns Related to Data Security
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Industrial and Commercial Segment Holds Major Share
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-User
- 5.1.1. Utilities
- 5.1.2. Industrial and Commercial
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 5.2.1. Gas-insulated
- 5.2.2. Air-insulated
- 5.2.3. Other Types
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.3.1. Asia Pacific
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-User
- 6. Asia Pacific Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 6.1.1. undefined
- 7. China Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 7.1.1. undefined
- 8. Japan Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 8.1.1. undefined
- 9. India Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 9.1.1. undefined
- 10. South Korea Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 10.1.1. undefined
- 11. Taiwan Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 11.1.1. undefined
- 12. Australia Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 12.1.1. undefined
- 13. Competitive Analysis
- 13.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 13.2. Company Profiles
- 13.2.1 ABB Ltd
- 13.2.1.1. Overview
- 13.2.1.2. Products
- 13.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.2 Simens AG
- 13.2.2.1. Overview
- 13.2.2.2. Products
- 13.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.3 Fuji Electric FA Components & Systems Co Ltd
- 13.2.3.1. Overview
- 13.2.3.2. Products
- 13.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.4 Powell Electric
- 13.2.4.1. Overview
- 13.2.4.2. Products
- 13.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.5 ENSTO Oy
- 13.2.5.1. Overview
- 13.2.5.2. Products
- 13.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.6 Rockwell Automation Inc
- 13.2.6.1. Overview
- 13.2.6.2. Products
- 13.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.7 Eaton
- 13.2.7.1. Overview
- 13.2.7.2. Products
- 13.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.8 LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED
- 13.2.8.1. Overview
- 13.2.8.2. Products
- 13.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.9 General Electric
- 13.2.9.1. Overview
- 13.2.9.2. Products
- 13.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.10 Schneider Electric SE
- 13.2.10.1. Overview
- 13.2.10.2. Products
- 13.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.1 ABB Ltd
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: China Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: China Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: Japan Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: Japan Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: South Korea Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 34: South Korea Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 35: India Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 36: India Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 37: Australia Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 38: Australia Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 39: New Zealand Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 40: New Zealand Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 41: Indonesia Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 42: Indonesia Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 43: Malaysia Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 44: Malaysia Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 45: Singapore Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 46: Singapore Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 47: Thailand Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 48: Thailand Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 49: Vietnam Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 50: Vietnam Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 51: Philippines Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 52: Philippines Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 5.95%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market?
Key companies in the market include ABB Ltd, Simens AG, Fuji Electric FA Components & Systems Co Ltd, Powell Electric, ENSTO Oy, Rockwell Automation Inc, Eaton, LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED, General Electric, Schneider Electric SE.
3. What are the main segments of the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market?
The market segments include End-User, Type.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Deployment of Smart Grid Networks and Integration of Renewable Energy Sources into Energy Mix.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Industrial and Commercial Segment Holds Major Share.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Concerns Related to Data Security.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
November 2021, Chubu Electric Power planned to make strategic investments of JPY 1 trillion over the next-10 years in overseas and renewable energy. The company also raised a 2030 renewable energy capacity target in Japan to 3.2 gigawatts (GW) from its previous goal of 2 GW.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 4950, and USD 6800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million and volume, measured in K Unit.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Asia Pacific Load Break Switches Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence