Key Insights
The Thailand vegetable seed market, valued at approximately $X million in 2025 (estimated based on provided CAGR and market size), is projected to experience robust growth, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.20% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is fueled by several key drivers. Rising consumer demand for fresh and healthy produce, coupled with a growing preference for diverse vegetable varieties, is significantly boosting the market. Furthermore, advancements in breeding technologies, particularly the development of hybrid seeds offering improved yields and disease resistance, are contributing to market growth. The increasing adoption of protected cultivation techniques, such as greenhouses, enhances crop productivity and resilience to environmental factors, further stimulating demand for high-quality vegetable seeds. While factors like fluctuating raw material prices and potential climate change impacts pose some constraints, the overall market outlook remains positive. The market is segmented by crop family (Brassicas, Cucurbits, Solanaceae, and others), breeding technology (hybrids, open-pollinated varieties, and hybrid derivatives), and cultivation mechanism (open field and protected cultivation). Major players like Lion Seeds Co Ltd, Groupe Limagrain, and Rijk Zwaan Zaadteelt en Zaadhandel BV are actively shaping the market through product innovation and strategic partnerships.
The dominance of certain vegetable types within the segments is expected to shift gradually, with demand for high-value crops likely increasing. The success of key players will hinge on their ability to adapt to evolving consumer preferences, invest in research and development to improve seed quality and resilience, and effectively manage supply chains to meet the growing demand. The geographic concentration in Thailand presents opportunities for expansion into other Southeast Asian markets with similar agricultural profiles. This market shows considerable potential for further growth, driven by both internal demand and opportunities for regional expansion, making it an attractive sector for investment and strategic partnerships.

Thailand Vegetable Seed Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This in-depth report provides a comprehensive analysis of the Thailand vegetable seed market, offering invaluable insights for industry stakeholders, investors, and strategic decision-makers. The report covers market size, growth drivers, competitive landscape, segment analysis, and future projections, empowering you to navigate this dynamic market effectively. With a study period spanning 2019-2033, a base year of 2025, and a forecast period of 2025-2033, this report provides a detailed historical perspective and future outlook. The market value is estimated to reach xx Million by 2025.
Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Market Concentration & Dynamics
The Thailand vegetable seed market exhibits a moderately concentrated landscape, with several multinational corporations and domestic players vying for market share. Key players such as Lion Seeds Co Ltd, Groupe Limagrain, Rijk Zwaan Zaadteelt en Zaadhandel BV, East-West Seed, Charoen Pokphand Group (CP Group), Enza Zaden, Syngenta Group, Known You Seed Co LTD, and Acsen HyVeg Pvt Ltd contribute significantly to the overall market dynamics.
- Market Concentration: The top 5 players hold an estimated xx% market share in 2025, indicating a moderate level of concentration. This is expected to remain relatively stable over the forecast period, although strategic acquisitions and new product introductions could shift the balance.
- Innovation Ecosystem: The market fosters a strong innovation ecosystem with ongoing R&D investments focused on developing disease-resistant varieties, improved yields, and superior quality seeds. This is particularly evident in the increasing adoption of hybrid seeds and advanced breeding technologies.
- Regulatory Framework: The regulatory environment in Thailand influences seed production, distribution, and import/export activities. Compliance with relevant regulations is crucial for market participation. Specific regulations affecting the seed industry are consistently updated and reviewed in this analysis.
- Substitute Products: While there are few direct substitutes for vegetable seeds, farmers may opt for alternative cultivation methods or switch to different vegetables based on market demand and profitability.
- End-User Trends: The increasing demand for fresh and processed vegetables fuels market growth, with trends toward organic farming, sustainable agricultural practices, and increased consumer awareness of food safety contributing to market evolution.
- M&A Activities: The market has seen a rise in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) activity, particularly among multinational players seeking to expand their product portfolios and market reach. We estimate that xx M&A deals have occurred within the industry over the past five years (2019-2024).
Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Industry Insights & Trends
The Thailand vegetable seed market is experiencing robust growth, driven by several factors. The market size was valued at xx Million in 2024, and is projected to reach xx Million by 2033, exhibiting a CAGR of xx% during the forecast period.
Several key trends shape the market's trajectory. The rising demand for fresh vegetables in both domestic and export markets significantly contributes to growth. Increasing consumer disposable income and the growing preference for healthy diets fuel this demand. Technological advancements in seed breeding, particularly the development of hybrid seeds and genetically modified (GM) varieties, have led to enhanced crop yields and disease resistance. Furthermore, the expanding adoption of protected cultivation practices improves overall yields and product quality. However, challenges persist, including fluctuating weather patterns and increasing input costs. The growing awareness of sustainability and the demand for environmentally friendly agricultural practices are also influencing market trends, pushing for the development of seeds that are compatible with sustainable practices and promoting bio-pesticides to limit reliance on chemical pesticides.

Key Markets & Segments Leading Thailand Vegetable Seed Market
The Thailand vegetable seed market is segmented by crop family (Brassicas, Solanaceae, Cucurbits, Other Roots & Bulbs, Other Unclassified Vegetables), breeding technology (Hybrids, Open Pollinated Varieties & Hybrid Derivatives), and cultivation mechanism (Open Field, Protected Cultivation).
- Dominant Segments: The Solanaceae segment (tomatoes, peppers, etc.) and Cucurbits (squash, melons, etc.) are presently dominant, primarily due to their high demand for domestic consumption and export, with the hybrid breeding technology dominating across most segments. The Open Field cultivation method remains the most prevalent, owing to its cost-effectiveness. However, protected cultivation is gaining traction due to its ability to improve crop quality and yield.
- Regional Dominance: While detailed regional data may not be available at the moment, it's safe to assume that the central and southern regions of Thailand, known for their agricultural output, are the most significant contributors to the market.
Drivers for Growth:
- Rising consumer demand for fresh vegetables.
- Growing adoption of protected cultivation techniques.
- Increased government support for the agricultural sector.
- Technological advancements in seed breeding.
- Expanding export opportunities.
Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Product Developments
Recent years have witnessed significant product innovations in the Thailand vegetable seed market, focusing on disease resistance, improved yield, and enhanced quality. Companies are investing heavily in R&D to develop seeds tailored to local climatic conditions and consumer preferences. Key advancements include the introduction of hybrid seeds with superior characteristics and the development of varieties resistant to common diseases and pests. These improvements are crucial for enhancing farm productivity and profitability. The trend towards organic farming has also driven the development of organic vegetable seeds, providing further opportunities for market expansion.
Challenges in the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Market
The Thailand vegetable seed market faces several challenges, including:
- Supply chain disruptions: Unexpected weather events and logistics issues can disrupt seed supply chains, affecting planting schedules and causing price fluctuations.
- Competition: The market is intensely competitive, with both domestic and international players vying for market share. This competition necessitates continuous innovation and strong marketing efforts.
- Regulatory hurdles: Navigating complex seed regulations can be challenging for companies, especially smaller enterprises.
Forces Driving Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Growth
Several factors are driving the growth of the Thailand vegetable seed market:
- Technological advancements: Innovation in breeding technology is leading to higher-yielding, disease-resistant varieties.
- Economic growth: Rising disposable incomes are boosting consumer demand for fresh vegetables.
- Government support: Government initiatives to support agriculture are creating a positive market environment.
Challenges in the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Market
Long-term growth in the Thai vegetable seed market hinges on addressing challenges and capitalizing on opportunities. Continued investment in research and development, building strong partnerships within the agricultural sector, and exploring new export markets will be critical for sustained growth. Adapting to climate change and mitigating its potential impact on crop production is another major aspect of long-term success.
Emerging Opportunities in Thailand Vegetable Seed Market
Emerging opportunities include:
- Organic seed market: Growing consumer preference for organic products presents a significant opportunity.
- Protected cultivation: Increasing adoption of protected cultivation offers enhanced yields and quality.
- Export markets: Exploring new export markets can help companies expand their business.
Leading Players in the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Sector
- Lion Seeds Co Ltd
- Groupe Limagrain
- Rijk Zwaan Zaadteelt en Zaadhandel BV
- East-West Seed
- Charoen Pokphand Group (CP Group)
- Enza Zaden
- Syngenta Group
- Known You Seed Co LTD
- Acsen HyVeg Pvt Ltd
Key Milestones in Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Industry
- May 2023: Enza Zaden launched a new line of HREZ tomato varieties highly resistant to ToBRFV.
- July 2023: Enza Zaden introduced new lettuce varieties resistant to three new Bremia races (Bl: 38EU, Bl: 39EU, and Bl: 40EU).
- July 2023: Enza Zaden acquired the carrot breeding program from Carosem, expanding its product portfolio.
Strategic Outlook for Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Market
The Thailand vegetable seed market holds significant long-term growth potential, driven by sustained consumer demand, technological innovation, and government support. Companies with strong R&D capabilities, robust distribution networks, and a focus on sustainability will be well-positioned to capitalize on emerging opportunities and maintain a competitive edge in this dynamic market. Strategic partnerships, expansion into new segments, and investment in advanced technologies will be critical for future success.
Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Segmentation
-
1. Breeding Technology
- 1.1. Hybrids
- 1.2. Open Pollinated Varieties & Hybrid Derivatives
-
2. Cultivation Mechanism
- 2.1. Open Field
- 2.2. Protected Cultivation
-
3. Crop Family
-
3.1. Brassicas
- 3.1.1. Cabbage
- 3.1.2. Carrot
- 3.1.3. Cauliflower & Broccoli
- 3.1.4. Other Brassicas
-
3.2. Cucurbits
- 3.2.1. Cucumber & Gherkin
- 3.2.2. Pumpkin & Squash
- 3.2.3. Other Cucurbits
-
3.3. Roots & Bulbs
- 3.3.1. Garlic
- 3.3.2. Onion
- 3.3.3. Potato
- 3.3.4. Other Roots & Bulbs
-
3.4. Solanaceae
- 3.4.1. Chilli
- 3.4.2. Eggplant
- 3.4.3. Tomato
- 3.4.4. Other Solanaceae
-
3.5. Unclassified Vegetables
- 3.5.1. Asparagus
- 3.5.2. Lettuce
- 3.5.3. Peas
- 3.5.4. Other Unclassified Vegetables
-
3.1. Brassicas
-
4. Breeding Technology
- 4.1. Hybrids
- 4.2. Open Pollinated Varieties & Hybrid Derivatives
-
5. Cultivation Mechanism
- 5.1. Open Field
- 5.2. Protected Cultivation
-
6. Crop Family
-
6.1. Brassicas
- 6.1.1. Cabbage
- 6.1.2. Carrot
- 6.1.3. Cauliflower & Broccoli
- 6.1.4. Other Brassicas
-
6.2. Cucurbits
- 6.2.1. Cucumber & Gherkin
- 6.2.2. Pumpkin & Squash
- 6.2.3. Other Cucurbits
-
6.3. Roots & Bulbs
- 6.3.1. Garlic
- 6.3.2. Onion
- 6.3.3. Potato
- 6.3.4. Other Roots & Bulbs
-
6.4. Solanaceae
- 6.4.1. Chilli
- 6.4.2. Eggplant
- 6.4.3. Tomato
- 6.4.4. Other Solanaceae
-
6.5. Unclassified Vegetables
- 6.5.1. Asparagus
- 6.5.2. Lettuce
- 6.5.3. Peas
- 6.5.4. Other Unclassified Vegetables
-
6.1. Brassicas
Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. Thailand

Thailand Vegetable Seed Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 5.20% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Adoption of Organic and Eco-friendly Farming Practices; Declining Area of Arable Land and Rising Food Security Concerns
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. High Demand for Conventional and Synthetic Products; Lack of Awareness and Other Factors Limiting the Adoption of Agricultural Inoculants
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. OTHER KEY INDUSTRY TRENDS COVERED IN THE REPORT
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Breeding Technology
- 5.1.1. Hybrids
- 5.1.2. Open Pollinated Varieties & Hybrid Derivatives
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Cultivation Mechanism
- 5.2.1. Open Field
- 5.2.2. Protected Cultivation
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Crop Family
- 5.3.1. Brassicas
- 5.3.1.1. Cabbage
- 5.3.1.2. Carrot
- 5.3.1.3. Cauliflower & Broccoli
- 5.3.1.4. Other Brassicas
- 5.3.2. Cucurbits
- 5.3.2.1. Cucumber & Gherkin
- 5.3.2.2. Pumpkin & Squash
- 5.3.2.3. Other Cucurbits
- 5.3.3. Roots & Bulbs
- 5.3.3.1. Garlic
- 5.3.3.2. Onion
- 5.3.3.3. Potato
- 5.3.3.4. Other Roots & Bulbs
- 5.3.4. Solanaceae
- 5.3.4.1. Chilli
- 5.3.4.2. Eggplant
- 5.3.4.3. Tomato
- 5.3.4.4. Other Solanaceae
- 5.3.5. Unclassified Vegetables
- 5.3.5.1. Asparagus
- 5.3.5.2. Lettuce
- 5.3.5.3. Peas
- 5.3.5.4. Other Unclassified Vegetables
- 5.3.1. Brassicas
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Breeding Technology
- 5.4.1. Hybrids
- 5.4.2. Open Pollinated Varieties & Hybrid Derivatives
- 5.5. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Cultivation Mechanism
- 5.5.1. Open Field
- 5.5.2. Protected Cultivation
- 5.6. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Crop Family
- 5.6.1. Brassicas
- 5.6.1.1. Cabbage
- 5.6.1.2. Carrot
- 5.6.1.3. Cauliflower & Broccoli
- 5.6.1.4. Other Brassicas
- 5.6.2. Cucurbits
- 5.6.2.1. Cucumber & Gherkin
- 5.6.2.2. Pumpkin & Squash
- 5.6.2.3. Other Cucurbits
- 5.6.3. Roots & Bulbs
- 5.6.3.1. Garlic
- 5.6.3.2. Onion
- 5.6.3.3. Potato
- 5.6.3.4. Other Roots & Bulbs
- 5.6.4. Solanaceae
- 5.6.4.1. Chilli
- 5.6.4.2. Eggplant
- 5.6.4.3. Tomato
- 5.6.4.4. Other Solanaceae
- 5.6.5. Unclassified Vegetables
- 5.6.5.1. Asparagus
- 5.6.5.2. Lettuce
- 5.6.5.3. Peas
- 5.6.5.4. Other Unclassified Vegetables
- 5.6.1. Brassicas
- 5.7. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.7.1. Thailand
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Breeding Technology
- 6. Competitive Analysis
- 6.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 6.2. Company Profiles
- 6.2.1 Lion Seeds Co Ltd
- 6.2.1.1. Overview
- 6.2.1.2. Products
- 6.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.2 Groupe Limagrain
- 6.2.2.1. Overview
- 6.2.2.2. Products
- 6.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.3 Rijk Zwaan Zaadteelt en Zaadhandel BV
- 6.2.3.1. Overview
- 6.2.3.2. Products
- 6.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.4 East-West Seed
- 6.2.4.1. Overview
- 6.2.4.2. Products
- 6.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.5 Charoen Pokphand Group (CP Group)
- 6.2.5.1. Overview
- 6.2.5.2. Products
- 6.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.6 Enza Zaden
- 6.2.6.1. Overview
- 6.2.6.2. Products
- 6.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.7 Syngenta Grou
- 6.2.7.1. Overview
- 6.2.7.2. Products
- 6.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.8 Known You Seed Co LTD
- 6.2.8.1. Overview
- 6.2.8.2. Products
- 6.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.9 Acsen HyVeg Pvt Ltd
- 6.2.9.1. Overview
- 6.2.9.2. Products
- 6.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.1 Lion Seeds Co Ltd
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Breeding Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Cultivation Mechanism 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Crop Family 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Breeding Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Cultivation Mechanism 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Crop Family 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Breeding Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Cultivation Mechanism 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Crop Family 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Breeding Technology 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Cultivation Mechanism 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Crop Family 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Thailand Vegetable Seed Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 5.20%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market?
Key companies in the market include Lion Seeds Co Ltd, Groupe Limagrain, Rijk Zwaan Zaadteelt en Zaadhandel BV, East-West Seed, Charoen Pokphand Group (CP Group), Enza Zaden, Syngenta Grou, Known You Seed Co LTD, Acsen HyVeg Pvt Ltd.
3. What are the main segments of the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market?
The market segments include Breeding Technology, Cultivation Mechanism, Crop Family, Breeding Technology, Cultivation Mechanism, Crop Family.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Adoption of Organic and Eco-friendly Farming Practices; Declining Area of Arable Land and Rising Food Security Concerns.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
OTHER KEY INDUSTRY TRENDS COVERED IN THE REPORT.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
High Demand for Conventional and Synthetic Products; Lack of Awareness and Other Factors Limiting the Adoption of Agricultural Inoculants.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
July 2023: Enza Zaden acquired the carrot breeding program from the German company Carosem. This strategic acquisition aims to expand Enza Zaden's product portfolio by incorporating carrot seeds with several commercial varieties and inventories.July 2023: Enza Zaden introduced new lettuce varieties that exhibit high resistance to three new Bermian races, namely, Bl: 38EU, Bl: 39EU, and Bl: 40EU. The new lettuce varieties not only offer high resistance to these races but also have the capability to grow in various soil types while still achieving high yields.May 2023: Enza Zaden launched a new line of HREZ tomato varieties that are highly resistant to the tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV) and deliver exceptional taste, yield, and quality. The HREZ tomatoes are available in various types, including Roma, Beef, Grape, Cherry, and Cocktail.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 3800, USD 4500, and USD 5800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Thailand Vegetable Seed Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Thailand Vegetable Seed Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence